Conversation Analysis In A Real Conversation English Language Essay

colloquy psychoanalysis In A Real Conversation English talking to EssayIn the previous chapter, discourse analysis has been discussed. In this chapter, we argon going to talk about chat analysis, which is one of the approaches to analyze discourse.8.1.1 What is Conversation Analysis?People atomic number 18 interested in brain how social interaction work. Linguists discover the ways in which how social interaction ar organized, they tried to let out and analyze those features appe atomic number 18d in conversation they use scientific methods to examine the phenomena. Conversation Analysis is a systematic guide established by the American pioneers, Harvey Sacks, Emanuel A. Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson. consort to Hutchby and Wooffitt (2008), how is a normal conversation organized, how do batch arrange their conversation in daily social interaction, and what is the role of conversation in between to each one participants, argon the major subject matter of this chapter.8.1.2 why do we get hold of Conversation Analysis?Conversation analysis represents a methodological approach to the study of social communication (Psathas, 1995). At the fundamental level, conversation analysis is the study of talk. It studies the natural and authentic conversation in real life situations, especially to read twist-taking organization, quiet down and heartening problem, sequence of vocalizations and transcription.The term interaction could apply to numbers of social encounters. For instance, a teacher chat force outg with students in a staff room is one frame of interaction others included a doctor communicate patient for the illnesses, a professor attending to a formal academic exchange meeting, or a woman chit-chat with the shop-keeper during she buys vegetables at the supermarket, and in that respect be dozens of frameworks showing that people be stimulate-to doe with in different contexts of conversation.8.1.3 Maxims of ConversationIn the field of lingu istics, horizontal more than specifically in the area of pragmatics and discourse analysis, scholar introduced an important concept maxims of conversation. It is the unwritten rules that govern people to make an appropriate conversation.The basic description of Grices cooperative principle govern how people ordinarily react in conversations Be true, be brief, be relevant and be clear.8.2.1 Turn-taking Organization in ConversationTurn-taking is one of the most critical and noniceable aspects of conversational structure. Harvey Sacks (1995), who the founder of the conversational analytic system, hold the view that the basic small unit of the conversation is turn. We are going to look at some fundamental features about turns (or floors) in order to discover how turns can be allocated.Furthermore, in a normal, polite, Western-styled conversation, participants do not keep on speaking all the snip, as to demonstrates patience, cooperation, social etiquette in a conversation, they t estament wait for their turn to speak.Liddicoat (2007) alluded that vocaliser units keep changing in a conversation when A is finished, it is Bs turn to talk. Consequently when B has finished speaking, A take turn again.8.2.2 How does turn-taking works?Schegloff, Sacks Jefferson (1974) introduced a set of turn-taking rules for people who involved in conversation can manage turn changeover and turn allocation easily. The turn-taking rules are set for distinguishing who should take the turn at the next transition relevance place (TRP).A transition-relevance place (TRP) takes place at the completion of an utterance it is the change-of-turn place (Wang, 2011).The turn-taking rules are ordered as the followingIf a talker is selected by the current loudspeaker, then that speaker must take the turn at the next transition relevance place. sourcegenus genus genus Venus Where should we go now, turn left or turn right?Winnie.Winnie Er I dont know, I am sorry.In this situation, A pass th e turn to B by asking a question.If, however, no next speaker is selected, then any other participant in the conversation may self-select to take the role and start speaking.ExampleVenus Where should we go now, turn left or turn right?Hailey I know.Venus Yes? Hailey.Hailey uhI suppose we should turn left.If no other speaker self-selects to take the role, the current speaker may then continue to talk again.ExampleVenus Which is the correct requireion to go, left or right?Winnie, Joanna, Hailey (Silence)Venus No one knows?Venus uh Ok, turn right then.Speakers depart indicate their entrustingness to stop by using signals, much(prenominal) as turning their gaze to person in the conversation, or using body languages and gestures, in order to stop and let others continue. Also, they may soften their speech, lengthen the last syllable of a sentence or use some discourse markers e.g. you know, as you see or sort of things etc. If certain markers are showed by the current speaker, an other participant will then take over the conversation. in that respect are ii types of signals or markers.Implicit markersMost of the time, people use body languages, sometimes prosodic features such as fall outing tone and rising tone can to a fault be used.Example 1 move over you noticed that?Example 2 weight you see the dolphin?Explicit markersThese are different kinds of linguistic features to invite people give response.a) Suggestion Turn-taking by making some suggestions.ExampleShall we go to Lamma Island on this Tuesday?b) Request accredited speaker may make a request the others.ExampleCould you please tell me about your journey?c) Question Current speaker will asks question in order to draws people attention and encourage others to get involved.ExampleWe go to Barcelona in the coming Easter, what do you think, favourite?8.2.3 Gaps and Overlaps in Turn-takingJerfferson (1983) have proposed some of the organizational features of gaps and overlapping. As we mentioned b efore, turn-taking can be visibly signaled by using body languages and gestures, however, it can in addition be marked by overlapping (Hutchby Wooffitt, 1998 Schegloff, Sacks Jefferson, 1974).If two or more people are speaking at the same time, overlapping will occur when the next speaker start talking when the current speaker has just completed a thought only, but still decide to continue (Schegloff, Sacks Jefferson 1974).Gaps may be handle as signs of trouble, for example, that the upcoming turn such as disagreements and localizations (Levinson, 1983). Gaps in conversation occur very frequently, such as telephone conversation.Example 1Joanna Well, will you help me for these.Hailey I certainly will give you a hand.Example 2Hailey Why dont you come and join me tonight at the party.Winnie Sure, I would bid to.When the next speaker self-selects at a transition-relevance place, but a current speaker would like to add additional information into the completed utterance, overlap s will withal occur.Example 3Hailey That was a romantic weekend, uh..Ven- Venus.Venus Im glad you enjoyed your time.Example 4Winnie The party should be around seven or soVenus Well, do you have an extra bed atyour place?8.3 RepairsAs Schegloff (1979) said, Repair is defined as the mechanism by which trouble in speaking, hearing, and understanding is claimed and resolved.8.3.1 Different kinds of conversation repairRepair can be classified by who initiates repair, such as self or other, and by who solves them, such as self or other (Wikipedia Conversation Analysis, n. d.). Repair on that pointfore can be divided into four types. They are self-initiated self repair, other-initiated self repair, self-initiated other repair and other-initiated other repair.8.3.1.1 Self-initiated self repairAccording to Wang (2011), the speaker initiates the mistake or something unknow in his conversation and he repairs it by himself, which is called self-initiated and self repair.Example blood-red What have you done at the weekend?LiXun I go toerhave gone to see a movie.In the example, LiXun initiates that he uses the wrong strive so he changes go into have gone immediately.8.3.1.2 Other-initiated self repairNot only the speaker himself can initiate his mistake, but other speakers also can do so. The speaker himself will repair it. This situation is called other-initiated self repair.The same situation as what mentioned above. The situation is changed. red-faced What have you seen?LiXun I go to see a movie.Ruby (surprised) What do you mean?LiXun I said I have gone to a movie.In this example, LiXun does not initiate that he uses the wrong tense. Ruby however dose. She reminds LiXun to repair.8.3.1.3 Self-initiated other repairSelf-initiated other repair is absolutely opposite to other-initiated self repair. The speaker himself initiates what should be repaired but he fails to repair it. The others help him to repair.ExampleRuby is going on talking with LiXun.Ruby Then what have y ou seen?LiXun A movie, er, adapted from a magic fiction, er, so famous. I forget the name Its writer is J.K. Rowling.Ruby Aha. I see. Its Harry Potter.LiXun Yes, that is Thanks.In this example, LiXun fails to remember the name of the movie in the conversation. Even though he knows the percentage point of the movie, he still cannot tell Ruby what he has seen. The detail which he gives however reminds Ruby of the name of the movie. This situation is defined as self-initiated other repair.8.3.1.4 Other-initiated other repairIn other-initiated other repair, the speaker even does not initiate what he has to repair. Others initiate it and repair for the speaker. You can learn from the following example.ExampleLiXun wants to go on their conversation.LiXun What about you, Ruby?Ruby Er, I think we have to go to the lecture room. Otherwise, we will be late for the lecture.LiXun Lets go to D1-LP-02.Ruby No, we are going to D1-LP-04.Ruby initiates what LiXun says is wrong in the conversation a nd repairs what he fails to say.8.4 Attributable silencesSilence plays an important role in our speech. As stated by Jaworski (1993, p.3), The primary(prenominal) common link between speech and silence is that the same interpretive processes apply to someones remaining meaningfully silent in discourse as to their speaking. Jaworski (1993) also suggests that silence has positive and negative value in a speech. His words indicated various silences of different situation perform different functions.8.4.1 Function of silenceJeasen (1973) suggested that there are five function of silence in speech. The functions he points out are the following a judgmental function, a linkage function, an affecting function, a revelation function and an activating function. All of the five functions are what we are going to focus on.8.4.1.1 Judgmental silenceAccording to Jeasen (1973), silence may indicate ones stead towards the takings he is talking about. Silence can tell whether he supports or he o bjects the idea.ExampleLiXun is talking a boring topic with Ruby.LiXun I think chemistry is so amazingRuby (Smiles and says nothing)LiXun Wow You see the chemistry formula (He goes on talking excitedly.)Ruby (Still keeps silent)Its apparent that Ruby holds opposite attitude to what LiXun is talking about. So she keeps silent for politeness.8.4.1.2 Linkage silenceJeasen (1973) stated that silence is able to bring two or more people together or to separate them. It brings further effects on the speakers in the speech. We are familiar with the following situation. Two good friends misunderstood each other. all time when they see each other they just keep silent. They, sooner or later, will become strangers. Because of silence, they fail to know what the other thinks. As the time goes by, they are separated by silence. This kind of silence separates people.8.4.1.3 Affective silenceJeansen (1973) holds the opinion that silence can heal or infract someone. It is believed that silence shows your attitude towards the topic of the conversation, as well as your attitude towards the speakers. For example, people always keep silence when they are talking to someone they dislike. The silence usually wound the speakers.8.4.1.4 Revelatory silenceRevelatory silence is an interesting one. Jeasen (1973) said that there may be some information behind the silence. It, meanwhile, may be known to the speakers or the listeners. What the silence actually means depends on the relationship between the speakers. You can see in the following example. If two closed friends, especially girls, are gossiping, they will keep silence when they are met someone who they are talking about. In this example, the silence conveys a warning.8.4.1.5 Activating silenceJeasen (1973) indicated that this kind of silence may bring some deep thoughtful signal. It also may bring mental inactive signal. While we are talking, our mind keeps on thinking. A silence is able to show the deep mind of the speaker s. As you can see, when we are consulting with the professors, they usually lead us to thinking deeply. The professors, therefore, choose to be silence when we are talking our ideas. The silence can be considered as an encouragement, an agreement or an appreciation.8.5 Sequence of Conversation8.5.1 Adjacency PairsAdjacency pair is the sequence of conversation. It includes two part which are produced near another (Hutchby Wooffitt, 1998) and is the smallest unit of conversational exchange.Basic form of adjacency pair (Schegloff, 2007)First, adjacency pair involves two utterances. Once the first utterance is spoken, the second is required.Second, each utterance is produced by two different speakers.Third, pairs are adjacently placed.Fourth, pairs of utterances are ordered. They are separated into two separate. They are the first pair parts (FPPs) and the second pair parts (SFFs). For instance, given a question is followed by an answer, then the question is the FPPs and the answer is the SPPs.Lastly, they are pair-type related.Here are some example of some types of adjacency pairs (Wang, 2011)Question answerAt the supermarketHailey Can I get some help over here? I cant get that tin of sardines.Shop-keeper Ill be right here to help you.Invitation / request acceptation / declinationIn Winnies birthdayJoanna Would you like to dance with me, please?Winnie Yes.Greeting return greetingHailey better morning.Joanna Morning.Offer acceptance / rejectionIn the libraryLiberian May I help you find something?Venus No thanks, I can find it by myself.Compliment acceptanceVenus Your dress looks very lovely.Winnie Thank you. I just brought it from HM.8.5.1.2 Transition of sequenceThere are different types of transition of sequence.8.5.1.2.1 Adjacency/ NextnessTo verbalize a turn-constructional unit, every word ought to be placed one by one (Schegloff, 2007).(8.5.1.2.1.a)Ben Good morning. docking facility Good morning.In the above conversation, Ben greets Bob and then Bo b returns the greeting to Ben immediately.(8.5.1.2.1.b)Ben Would you like to have a lunch?Bob No, thanks.Ben How about a drink?The above conversation is called exchange as it includes three utterances. The IRF figure of speech are initiation, response and follow-up (Wang, 2011).8.5.1.2.2 CountersCounter means one does not answer SPP directly after one asks a FPP, instead he/she direct the FPP back to the asker (Schegloff, 2007). In this case, SSP given is being delayed.(8.5.1.2.2.a) (Tarpee, 19911)1 Kate F What is it?2 Emily F You guess what it is first.3 (0.2)4 Kate S Pumpkin.5 Emily Yes, it is.In the conversation, Kate asks a question (FFP) in line 1, however, Emily does not answer it in return, and instead she redirects the question back to Kate (the asker) to answer. (line2)(8.5.1.2.2.b) (Scheflen, 1961114, as adapted in Peyrot, 199417)1 readiness F Do you love me?2 Candy F Do you think so?3 Seth Sure.4 Candy But I dont.In the conversation, Candy does not answer Seths question directly. Instead, she answers the question with an insertion of a question-answer exchange.8.5.2 Pre-expansionPre-expansion means adding a part before an exchange (FPs and SPs). According to Schegloffs, pre-expansion is expanding the conversation by adding preliminary question in front of the FFP (Schegloffs, 2007).8.5.2.1 Pre-invitationBefore giving an invitation, you requirement to be sure that he or she is available or not. So, you need to ask some preliminary questions. For example, by asking What are you doing?, if you want one to accept your invitation, you expect the answer to be no vice versa.(8.5.2.1) (Jefferson G.31)(Arthur is the ships company Sylvia is respondent to the phone)1 Sylvia Hello.2 Arthur Hello, how are you?3 Sylvia Fine, thanks.4 Arthur F(pre) What are you doing?5 Sylvia S(pre) Nothing.6 Arthur F(b) Do you want a drink?7 Sylvia S(b) Yes, why not?Arthur asks what Sylvia is doing to see if she is free or not. With the endeavour res ponse of Sylvia (line 5) indicating she is free, Arthur continues to invite her as he knows she is free with the pre-sequence asked at line 4. Finally, Sylvia accepts his invitation.8.5.2.1 Pre-offerPre-offer is similar to pre-invitation. It aims to provide the need to someone beforehand.(8.5.2.2.a)1 Sylvia Oh, I tear the sheet mistakenly.2 Arthur 3 Sylvia I think I need to buy a tape.4 Arthur I have one.5 Sylvia Really?6 Arthur Do you want it?7 Sylvia Sure.From the example, Arthur gives the pre-offer (line 4) to Sylvia after knowing she needs a tape. At line5, when she says Really?, it is a go-ahead response to pre-sequence. Lastly, when Arthur makes the offer, she accepts.8.5.3 PreferenceThere are different types of responses during exchanges. For instance, when greeting, one says hello to you and you are supposed to reply with a greeting too. Nevertheless, when one asks you a question, you may have different answers which can be preferred or dispreferred by the asker. Like an invitation, the reply can be positive or negative. Nonetheless, an answer with yes does not mean it is a prefered response. According to Schegloff, If the question is built to prefer yes, then no is a dispreferred response, even if delivered without delay and in turn-initial position, vise versa (Schegloff, 1988 c453).8.5.3.1 Types of responsesThere are two types of responses. The first one is preferred responses, which means answers are given positively. Another is dispreferred responses, which means answers are given negatively.In fact, there are some hints indicating the preferred status of a turn.When answering directly and without any delayExampleJanice Do you want to go swimmingJill Yes, I do.Moreover, there are some other hints indicating the dispreferred status of a turn.a) When answering indirectlyExampleJanice Are you free on Monday?Jill Well, I need to do my homework, and b) When answering with delayExampleHesitation such as Well, Um, Er8.6 Conversation Transcripti onTranscription of conversation is very essential for analyzing conversation .It should be produced anterior conversation analysis, because it is used as a referential tool for the analysis of conversation (Psathas, 1995).8.6.1 Tools used for recordingA naturally occurring conversation is usually put down by video recorders these days. Hence, apart from recording the conversation, body languages, gestures as well as facial expressions can also be recorded. These features are very life-and-death as they allow the relationship between speech and body movement to be observed (Psathas, 1995).8.6.2 Procedures involved in transcriptionIn fact, the recordings mentioned in 8.6.1 are done by analysts themselves. After producing the recordings, analysts listen to the recordings repeatedly by themselves. Once analysts repeatedly listen to the tape, they can focus on the phenomena that are very crucial for conversation analysis (Hutchby, Wooffitt, 2008).8.6.3 Characteristics of conversatio n transcriptionConversation transcription is not simply a piece of writing with words and sentences exchanged by the speakers. However, it includes many a(prenominal) other different features as well.The information listed below should be included in a transcript (Wang, 2011).Information about the participantsWords spoken arduous utteredInaudible soundOverlapping speechStretch, stresses, volumeDifferent transcription symbols will be introduced as follows1. LatchingWhen latching occurs in a conversation between two people, two = will be placed in the transcript when the second speaker speaks just after the first speaker speaks. The first = will be placed right behind the transcription of the first speaker, while the second one is placed in front of the transcript of the second speaker (Psathas, 1995).ExampleMary Im empty-bellied=Peter =You never feel fullLatching by more than one speaker is represented similarly to latching by two speakers. A = is put after the transcription of the first speaker, but a = is placed in front of the transcription of two speakers instead of = (Psathas, 1995).ExampleHailey Im famished=Joanna =You never feel fullVenus =So do ILatching by more than one speaker can also occur in a way that two speakers end their conversation at the same time and immediately the third speaker speaks. (Psathas, 1995)ExampleVenus Im very very hungry=Hailey hungryJoanna =So do I.In this case, the Mary and Peter end their conversation at the same time and then Paul immediately speaks.2. Audible breathingExhalations are represented by an h or more than one h while inhalations are represented by .h or more than one .h (Psathas, 1995). Usually, departure expresses tiredness or sadness.ExampleJoanna I havent finished my Wiki-book project yet hhhhAs for inhalation, it usually indicates surprise or nervousness.ExampleVenus .hhh Im going to have my linguistics exam tomorrow.Sound stretchSound stretch means lengthening the sound. When speakers would like to str engthen their tone, sound stretch occurs. One colon denotes that the precedent sound is lengthened, while more than 1 colon means a more lengthened sound (Psathas, 1995).ExampleHailey I am so hungryVenus I know (.) I can hear that some sounds coming out from your stomach.IntonationThroughout a conversation, there must be rises and falls in the transition of speakers (Psathas, 1995).A rise in intonationAn arrow pointing upwards is put just prior to the rise in intonation (Psathas, 1995).ExampleJoanna Would you like to have dinner with me?Venus Yes, sure.A fall in intonationAn arrow pointing downwards is put just behind the fall in intonation (Psathas, 1995).ExampleHailey Would you like to have dinner with me?((gap))VenusYes(0.9)if Im free tonight.StressWhen speakers want to emphasize something, they will speak the words more loudly and lengthen the words. The emphasized word is underlined (Psathas, 1995).ExampleHailey I almost got full marks for my linguistics exam, will I be awarde d something, Mum?Venus Sure (0.9) Ill buy a reference book for you to study so that you can get full marks next time.PitchA Fall in pitchTo show a fall in pitch, the vowel sound of the word should be underlined, and a colon is added just behind the underlined vowel (Psathas, 1995).ExampleHailey I was awarded a reference book(0.8) for having good results in the exam..Joanna If you were awarded the newly released photo album of Rain, you would have been much happier.A rise in pitchTo show a rise in pitch, the stress is marked on the prolongation (Psathas, 1995).ExampleJoanna My mother gave me a big surpriseHailey buy you the photo album of Rain?Joanna YesVolumeIncreased Volume is indicated by capital letters (Wang, 2011).ExampleWhen Joanna is talking to Hailey, suddenly a dog appears.Joanna Have you finished the wiki-book project? (.) A DOGS RUNNING TOWARDS USHailey Calm down, Joanna.Decreased volume is indicated by degree marks (Wang, 2011).ExampleWhen Venus is telling Hailey someth ing unsuitable about Paul, suddenly Paul approaches.Venus Paul never hands in his homework on time.Hailey Pauls approaching8. Sound utteredThere are not only words within a conversation. Sometimes, when the speakers produce some sounds, they are also recorded.ExampleHailey Oh Ive dropped my mobile phone into the toiletVenus(laugh) Why are you so careless?8.7 ConclusionConversation is an exchange of information between people in real-life situations. The aim of conversation analysis is to give an analytic description of the organization of interaction. We can understand how people carry out conversation in the society. In addition, we know more about the secrets behind the conversation, such as silence and preference.